June 2012: 1 June 2012: Eurozone unemployment at 11%, in the 27-nation EU the jobless rate 10.3%, up from 10.2% - 10 June 2012: Spanish bank bailout request welcomed - 29 June 2012: Eurozone agrees to use its bailout fund to support struggling banks directly

July/August 2012: 2 July 2012: Unemployment in the eurozone hit 11.1% in May while the downturn in its manufacturing sector continued - 25 July 2012: Libor fixing to become criminal offence, EU justice commissioner Viviane Reding says - 2 August 2012: ECB's Draghi reaffirms promise to do 'whatever it takes' to save euro - 14 August 2012: Eurozone economy shrinks by 0.2% - 31 August 2012: Unemployment across the 17-nation eurozone hit a record 18 million in July

September/October 2012: 6 September: ECB's Mario Draghi unveils bond-buying euro debt plan - 1 October: Unemployment in the eurozone hit a fresh high of 18.2 million in August - 8 October: Eurozone unlocks $650bn crisis rescue fund - 13 October: The EU has been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, which is worth a million euros, for six decades of work in advancing peace in Europe - 18 October: EU Brussels summit to focus on eurozone crisis - 19 October: At the EU Brussels summit compromise deal reached on eurozone bank supervisor - 23 October: The European Commission has backed plans from 10 countries to launch a financial transactions tax - 31 October: Eurozone unemployment jumps to fresh high of 18.49 million in September, unemployment rate up to 11.6% (a year earlier 10.3%)

November/December 2012: 6 November: The European Court of Auditors said there were errors in allocating about 5bn euros from the 2011 EU budget - 7 November: Eurozone jobless to peak near 12% in 2013,the EU autumn forecasts says - 30 November: Unemployment in the eurozone hit a record high in October, with more than 170.000 extra jobs lost and youth joblessness at almost 24 per cent, as the economy slumped into recession - 13 December: Eurozone agrees ECB banking supervision rules

January/February 2013: 8 January 2013: Eurozone unemployment reaches new high in 2012, as more than 26 million people are now unemployed across the EU - 28 February 2013: EU agrees to cap banker bonuses

April/May 2013: 2 April 2013: The euro area seasonally-adjusted unemployment rate was 12.0 % in February 2013 - 15 mai 2013: Selon une première estimation de l'Eurostat, le Produit intérieur brut de la zone euro s'est replié de 0,2% au premier trimestre - 31 May: One in four youths is jobless as unemployment across the eurozone reaches record of 19.38 million people or 12.2%

September-November 2013: 27 septembre: Le budget UE 2013 accuse un trou de 20 milliards d'euros - 12 November: EU agreement on 2014 budget, including 135.5 billion euros in payments and 142.6 billion euros in commitments

2014: 1 January 2014: European labour market opens for Romanians, Bulgarians - 5 June: As the eurozone economy is only growing at 0.2%, ECB slashes interest rate to 0.15%

26 October 2014: Twenty-four European banks fail European Banking Authority financial stress tests

2015: 22 January 2015: ECB president Mario Draghi pledges €60bn monthly top-up until September 2016 in quantitative easing move to save currency bloc - 20 February: Eurozone ministers gather for crucial Greece talks - 19 March: EU leaders set for crunch Greek talks at Brussels summit - 20 March: EU summit in Brussels demands Greece produce economic blueprint quickly - 20 March: EU offers funds to Greece in return for urgent reforms - 24 March: Greece promises list of reforms by next Monday to unlock cash and avoid default - 29 June 2015: Turmoil hits the financial world after capital controls imposed in Greece and banks are shut for a week, triggering a new phase of the eurozone crisis - 23 September: Volkswagen crisis and Chinese economy fears weigh on markets - 13 November 2015: The eurozone economy slowed in the three months to September 2015 as exports to large developing economies weakened

July 2017: 28 July 2017: Economic confidence across the eurozone has inched up to its highest level in a decade, as countries beat UK with solid growth in Q2

August 2018: 14 August 2018: The eurozone economy has shrugged off growing trade tensions to grow faster than previously estimated in the three months to the end of June, as GDP was also up 0.4% in the 28 EU countries

Mai 2019: 12 mai 2019: Les inégalités ont augmenté dans l'Union européenne ces dernières décennies, en particulier dans l'ancien bloc de l'Est, selon une étude

June 2019 eurozone's manufacturers hit by an even sharper slowdown than Britain on back of Brexit uncertainty: 3 June 2019: Manufacturers in the eurozone hit by an even sharper slowdown than Britain on back of Brexit uncertainty, as UK survey found that the seven-month delay to Brexit had been followed by a reduction in domestic and overseas orders and led to some companies diverting supply chains away from the UK, while weak production led to a second month of job losses

Februar 2020 eurozone economy hits seven-year low: 14 Februar 2020: Eurozone growth hits seven-year low amid weakness at Europe’s largest economies, as German economy stagnates and France, Italy and Finland contract, although countries in the periphery grew quite strongly in the last quarter of 2019

Since February 2020 economic impact of the covid-19 pandemic in Europe: Since February 2020 economic impact of the covid-19 pandemic in Europe, as the pandemic caused the largest global recession in history, with more than a third of the global population at the time being placed on lockdown

March 2020 carmakers in Europe suspending or cutting production due to coronavirus: 20 March 2020: Every major carmaker in the UK and Europe is suspending or cutting production as the disruption from the Chinese coronavirus outbreak spreads, with only lower-volume manufacturers keeping factories open

30 April 2020 Eurozone records 3.8% slump in first quarter: 30 April 2020: Eurozone records 3.8% slump, as ECB chief Lagarde warns of worse to come saying there could be a 15% collapse after record first quarter output fall caused by covid-19 pandemic, with France and Italy falling into recession, as Spain reported a quarterly drop of 5.2%, while Belgian and Austrian GDPs fell by 3.9% and 2.5%, and as Germany, not releasing its growth figures, but reported a 373,000 increase in unemployment and a jump to 10.1 million workers on reduced hours in April

7 July 2020 Europe faces deep recession EC says: 7 July 2020: Europe faces deep recession and UK will shrink by 10%, says EC, as gloomy forecast comes 10 days before EU leaders meet to discuss €750bn recovery plan

31 July 2020 Eurozone economy shrinks by record 12.1% in Q2 due to covid-19: 31 July 2020: Eurozone economy shrinks by record 12.1% due to covid-19 pandemic, as data reveals contraction in second quarter wiped out more than decade of expansion

26 October 2020 stock markets in Europe and the USA fell sharply amid further covid-19 impacts: 26 October 2020: Stock markets in Europe and the USA fell sharply as investors focused on signs that rich countries’ efforts to contain the coronavirus pandemic were foundering, and as the Stoxx 600 index lost 1.8% after heavy falls in German blue-chip stocks while countries across Europe have reported increasing numbers of confirmed covid-19 cases, and governments have reimposed restrictions that are expected to limit the economic recovery from the first wave of the pandemic

30 April 2021 Eurozone falls into double-dip recession: 30 April 2021: Eurozone falls into double-dip recession amid covid-19 pandemic, 'The Guardian' reports live

Social class in Europe

Mai 2019 les inégalités ont augmenté dans l'Union européenne: 12 mai 2019: Les inégalités ont augmenté dans l'Union européenne ces dernières décennies, en particulier dans l'ancien bloc de l'Est, mais le fossé entre riches et pauvres reste moins gigantesque que dans d'autres régions du monde, selon une étude

2 juin 2023 l'Europe dans tous ses États s'intéresse à la pauvreté: 2 juin 2023: L'Europe dans tous ses États s'intéresse à la pauvreté et aux perspectives d'avenir de la jeunesse européenne. Au total, 95 millions d'Européens sont menacé d'exclusion sociale, soit 22% de la population. En Bulgarie, Caroline de Camaret est partie à la découverte de certains projets financés par les fonds européens

Labor in Europe - Labour in the European Union

Trade unions in Europe - Trade unions in the European Union

List of federations of trade unions in Europe - European trade union federations

Since 1973: Since 1973 European Trade Union Confederation - European Trade Union Confederation by country

European labour law - Since 1989 Community Charter of the Fundamental Social Rights of Workers - Co-determination - European Employment Strategy

European history and society by country: European society by country - History of Europe - History of Europe by country - Rise of the territorial states

73 BC–10th century AD list of conflicts and wars in Europe ordered chronologically, including wars between European states, civil wars within European states, wars between a European state and a non-European state that took place within Europe and neighbouring regions, and global conflicts in which Europe was a 'theatre' of war

Slavery in ancient Rome and uprisings: Slavery in ancient Rome - Die Sklaverei im Römischen Reich bestand zunächst vor allem aus Schuldsklaverei, während die Versklavung von Kriegsgefangenen während der Eroberungsfeldzüge immer mehr zunahm und Kriegsgefangene als Sklaven - juristisch das Eigentum des pater familias - nach Rom kamen, so daß in der Kaiserzeit der Anteil der Unfreien auf rund ein Viertel der Bevölkerung auf dem Gebiet des heutigen Italiens geschätzt wird - Sklavenaufstände im Römischen Reich zwischen 120 und 71 v. Chr. - vor allem von ländlichen Sklaven ausgelöst - aufgrund der Erbitterung über menschenunwürdige, grausame Behandlung und verstärkt dadurch, daß viele der Sklaven vorher freie Bürger in den hellenistischen Staaten gewesen waren

Since 71 BC Roman empire's mass murder of slaves and further imperial conquests: Um 71 v. Chr. 'Zweite Schlacht am Silarus' zwischen aufständischen Sklaven, deren Heer von wütenden Sklaven nach Zeitzeugenberichten derzeit schon 200.000 bewaffnete Sklaven umfasste, und römischen Legionären - besser trainiert und vor allem gut bewaffnet auf der Grundlage von durch Sklaven produziertem Reichtum -, in der der Anführer der Widerstandsbewegung Spartacus bald nach Beginn der Schlacht getötet werden konnte ohne daß seine Leiche je gefunden wurde (zur Nachahmung bis 1919 und zur Gegenwart), damit nach dem Tod ihres Generals viele Widerstandskämpfer den Mut verloren wegen der Unklarheit des Geschehens und sie sich den Römern ergaben, um dann von den 'patres familias' und ihrem Befehlshaber Crassus, bekannt insbesondere auch für seinen zusammengeraubten gewaltigen Reichtum, als gefangenene Sklaven zu tausenden entlang der Via Appia ans Kreuz geschlagen zu werden, im geschichtlichen Ablauf später gefolgt von Crassus' Feldzug nach Syrien, der dann von Augustus, seit 30 v. Chr. Alleinherrscher (Römische Kaiserzeit 27 v. Chr. bis 284 n. Chr.), fortgesetzt wurde u.a. bis hin zur Liquidierung Judäas und Israels

Since 71 BC Spartacus death, legacy and recognition: Seit 1. Jahrhundert vor Christus Spartakus, gefallen 71 v. Chr., seine Bedeutung in der römischen Geschichte, in der europäischen Aufklärung, und seit dem 18./19. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart - 31 January 2004: The black Spartacus Toussaint L'Ouverture defeated Britain, France and Spain to create a country free from slavery, as now Haiti marks the bicentenary of its birth and Ian Thomson hails its founder

Since 73–63 BC Roman expansion and Roman empire's province of Judea: 63 BC during Roman general Pompey's campaigns in the East Siege of Jerusalem - Since 63 BC during Roman expansion general Pompey made Jerusalem a tributary of Rome, as Judea became a satellite of Syria, a client state of the Roman Republic from 37 BCE, and the Roman empire's province of Judea since 6 AD, incorporating the regions of Judea, Samaria and Idumea, as the name 'Judea' was derived from the Kingdom of Judah of the 6th century BCE, as after the Bar Kokhba revolt 132–135 the Roman emperor Hadrian changed the name of the province to Syria Palaestina and the name of the city of Jerusalem to Aelia Capitolina, an attempt to disconnect the Jewish people from their homeland, later - Siege of Jerusalem (37 BC)

Since 66-135 Jewish–Romani ideologically connected wars by the Roman empire to subjugate and then to wipe out the Jewish people: Since 66-135 Jewish–Roman wars against the Jewish people by the Roman empire, committing war crimes to destroy the Jewish religion and to establisch slavery - Since 130 AD 'Aelia Capitolina', a Roman colony founded by Emperor Hadrian in Jerusalem, which had been almost totally razed after the siege of 70 AD, during his trip to Judah in 129/130 AD with the construction of a temple to Jupiter at the site of the former temple, as 'Aelia' came from Hadrian's nomen gentile Aelius, while Capitolina meant that the new city was dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus, as Aelia Capitolina remained official name until early Middle Ages and transliteration to 'Iliya' after the Muslim conquest of Palestine in 638, when the 7th-century Umayyad Caliphatete used the Islamic name for Jerusalem, and as the population of the city declined after Muslim conquest

718–1492 'Reconquista' in the Iberian Peninsula and military history of Christianity: Spread of Islam - 718–1492 'Reconquista' in the Iberian Peninsula - Military history of Christianity - Military theory

Since the Middle Ages wars of religion, under the pretext of religion and emerging gunpowder empires: Spread of Islam - Islam and antisemitism - Since the Middle Ages European wars of religion and under the pretext of religion - Christianity in the early modern period - Early modern Christian antisemitism

Invasions by the Ottoman Empire in Europe: Invasions by the Ottoman Empire in Europe - 1300–1453 foundation period of the military of the Ottoman Empire - Early modern gunpowder empires

Naval history by geographical location and by country, including emerging European countries: Naval history by geographical location, by country and by economic and technological development - History of naval warfare, the human combat in and on the sea, the ocean, or any other battlespace involving a major body of water such as a large lake or wide river, in the Mediterranean Sea, Europe, West Asia and North Africa, East, South and Southeast Asia, and in the Americas after the late Middle Ages saw the development of the cogs, caravels and carracks ships capable of surviving the tough conditions of the open ocean, with enough backup systems and crew expertise to make long voyages routine, and in addition, they grew from 100 tons to 300 tons displacement, enough to carry cannon as armament and still have space for cargo, told by the peaceful Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer Archimedes of Syracuse 287-212 BC

Since 1492 Spanish colonization of the Americas under the Crown of Castile searching gold and silver: Since 1492 Spanish colonization of the Americas under the Crown of Castile and spearheaded by the Spanish conquistadors searching gold and silver, needed for the circulation sphere of the emerging European capitalism, as the Americas populated by Native Americans were invaded, fought down merciless and incorporated into the Spanish Empire - Wars involving the arising Spanish empire and Spain

16th/17th century list of conflicts and wars in Europe ordered chronologically, including wars between European states, civil wars within European states, wars between a European state and a non-European state that took place within Europe, and global conflicts in which Europe was a 'theatre' of war

1568–1648 'Dutch War of Independence' against Spanish empire: 1568–1648 Eighty Years' War or 'Dutch War of Independence', a revolt of the Seventeen Provinces of what are today the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg against Spanish empire's Philip II, also the sovereign of the Habsburg Netherlands, who - after the initial stages - deployed his armies, trained for a long time, and regained control over most of the rebelling provinces

1585–1604 Anglo-Spanish War: 1585–1604 Anglo-Spanish War, an intermittent conflict between the kingdoms of Spain and England, punctuated by widely separated battles, beginning with England's military expedition in 1585 to what was then the Spanish Netherlands in support of the resistance of the States General to Spanish Habsburg rule, as the English enjoyed a victory at Cádiz in 1587, and repelled the Spanish Armada in 1588, but then suffered heavy setbacks despite two further Spanish armadas of 1596 and 1597 failure's for Spain mainly because of adverse weather and poor planning, then becoming deadlocked around the turn of the 17th century during campaigns in the Netherlands, France, and Ireland and brought to an end with the Treaty of London, negotiated in 1604 between representatives of the new King of Spain, Philip III, and the new King of England, James I. England and Spain agreed to cease their military interventions in the Spanish Netherlands and Ireland, respectively, and the English ended high seas privateering

August 1604 Treaty of London restoring the 'Status quo' between Anglo-Spanish monarchies with very different and opposite backgrounds: August 1604 Treaty of London, concluding the nineteen-year Anglo-Spanish War by restoring the 'Status quo' between the two monarchies with very different and opposite backgrounds

1602-1663 Dutch–Portuguese War: 1602-1663 Dutch–Portuguese War involving Dutch forces, in the form of the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company, against the Portuguese Empire, as in its beginning the conflict primarily involved the Dutch companies invading Portuguese colonies in the Americas, Africa, India, and Southeast Asia, and as the war can be thought of as an extension of the 'Eighty Years' War' in Europe, as Portugal was in a dynastic union with the Spanish Crown after the War of the Portuguese Succession for most of the conflict, but in the real world of economics and the 'Wealth of Nations' the conflict had little to do with the war in Europe and served mainly as a way for the Dutch to gain an overseas empire and control trade at the cost of the Portuguese, as English forces also assisted the Dutch at certain points in the war, though in later decades English and Dutch would become fierce rivals, and even later would connect again and even join in British/Dutch 'joint ventures', like British-Dutch multinational oil and gas company, in the times of economic and global crises, environmental disasters and climate change, beginning with the panic and stock market crash of 1825 in London, arising in part out of speculative investments in Latin America

1609-21 'Twelve Years' Truce' between Habsburg rulers of Spain and the Netherlands: Since April 1609 'Twelve Years' Truce', the cessation of hostilities between the Habsburg rulers of Spain and the Southern Netherlands and the Dutch Republic, agreed in Antwerp, coinciding with the Royal Decree of Expulsion of the Moriscos, and a watershed in the 'Eighty Years' War', marking the point from which the independence of the United Provinces received formal recognition by outside powers, as for Spanish empire the truce and progress was seen as a defeat as the global 'conquistadors' were forced to make several 'sacrifices' but they scarcely got anything in return, like gold and silver for murdered Native Americans since 1492

Since 1618 European involvement in 'Thirty Years' War' and social impact: Since 1618 involvement in 'Thirty Years' War', social impact and political consequences

May 1618 – May 1648 'Thirty Years' War': May 1618 – May 1648 'Thirty Years' War', a conflict primarily fought in Central Europe, as estimates of total military and civilian deaths range from 4.5 to 8 million, mostly from disease or starvation, and in some areas of Germany, it has been suggested that up to 60% of the population died

1625-1630 Anglo–Spanish War fought by Spain against the Kingdom of England and the United Provinces: 1625-1630 Anglo–Spanish War, fought by Spain against the Kingdom of England and the United Provinces, as the conflict already formed part of the Eighty Years' War and the Thirty Years' War

18th century list of conflicts and wars in Europe ordered chronologically, including wars between European states, civil wars within European states, wars between a European state and a non-European state that took place within Europe, and global conflicts in which Europe was a 'theatre' of war

1792-1802 French Revolutionary Wars following the French Revolution and Republic: 1792-1802 French Revolutionary Wars, following the French Revolution since 1789 and the establishment of the first French Republic as turning point in human history, and divided in the two periods of the War of the First Coalition (1792–97) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802), as Great Britain, the Holy Roman Empire, Prussia, Russia, and several other monarchies looked with outrage at the revolution and its upheavals, considering whether they should intervene, either in support of King Louis XVI, to prevent the spread of revolution, or to take advantage of the chaos in France

19th century list of conflicts and wars in Europe ordered chronologically, including wars between European states, civil wars within European states, wars between a European state and a non-European state that took place within Europe, and global conflicts in which Europe was a 'theatre' of war

1775–1783 'American Revolutionary War' between the Kingdom Great Britain and its North American colonies: 1775–1783 American Revolutionary War, the war of independence between the Kingdom of Great Britain and 13 of its former North American colonies, which had declared themselves the independent United States of America - 1808-1833 Spanish American wars of independence - 1822-1824 war of independence of Brazil and first, second Brazilian republic and 1988 Constitution

Since 1799 Napoleonic wars, war crimes and restoration of slavery: 1803–1815 emperor Napoleon's Wars, total war with millions of Napoleonic wars casualties in whole Europe, leading to an ongoing period of reaction, including the restoration of slavery, nationalism and chauvinism worldwide

November Polish uprising 1830–1831 against the Russian Empire: November Uprising 1830–1831, an armed rebellion in the heartland of partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire, that began on 29 November 1830 in Warsaw

March-May 1848 Greater Poland uprising: March-May 1848 Greater Poland uprising of 1848, an unsuccessful insurrection of Poles against Prussian forces, during the Spring of Nations period. While the main fighting was concentrated in the Greater Poland region, fights also occurred in other part of the Prussian Partition of Poland, and protests were held in Polish inhabited regions of Silesia

January Polish uprising 1863-1864 against the Russian Empire: January Uprising 1863-1864, an insurrection instigated principally in the Russian Partition of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth against its occupation by the Russian Empire

Polish Revolution of 1905: Polish Revolution of 1905 against the Russian Empire, as in 1905 and 1906 close to 7,000 strikes and other work stoppages occurred involving 1,3 million Poles, protesters demanded both improved conditions for workers and more political freedom for the Poles, and Russian empire contributed by trying to incite some anti-Jewish pogroms

1848-1849 democratic revolutions in Western, Northern, and Central Europe: 1848-1849 revolutions in Europe, also known as the 'Springtime of the Peoples', a series of political upheavals that spread across Europe after an initial revolution began in France in February 1848, remaining the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history to date including people of Ireland, France, the German states, the Austrian Empire, Hungary, the Italian states, Denmark, Moldavia, Wallachia, Poland, and other, as the revolutions were essentially democratic and liberal in nature with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and creating independent nation-states

1848-1849 democratic revolution development and events by country: 1848-1849 democratic revolution events by country, as the general pattern showed very sharp cycles as reform moved up then down, reflecting the advanced economic development and class contrast since the 1789-99 revolutionary period in France, and since the first modern economic crises in the 1820s outgoing from the 1801 established, so-called 'United Kingdom' and the development of the world market

February 1848 Chartist petition, suppression in London: In February 1848, following the arrival of news of a revolution in Paris, Chartist activity increased. In March there were protests or bread riots in Manchester, Glasgow, and Dublin, and a new demonstration was announced for 10 April 1848, to be held on Kennington Common, London. UK's authorities knew that the Chartists planned a peaceful demonstration, but still wanted a large-scale display of force to counter the challenge, so 100,000 special constables were recruited to bolster the police force

Revolutions of 1848 in the 'Austrian Empire' against absolute monarchy, for democracy, independence, land reform: Revolutions of 1848 in the 'Austrian Empire', a set of revolutions that took place from March 1848 to November 1849 in the centre of the empire itself, ruled from Vienna, included ethnic Germans, Hungarians, Slovenes, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Ukrainians (Ruthenians), Romanians, Croats, Venetians and Serbs. All of whom attempted in the course of the revolution to either achieve autonomy, independence, or even hegemony over other nationalities, as the nationalist picture was further complicated by the simultaneous events in the German states threatened by the Kingdom of Prussia since 17th/18th century - Revolución de 1848 en los Estados de los Habsburgo

March-May 1848 revolutionary movement in Spain: La ola revolucionaria de 1848 tuvo escasa repercusión en España, si bien conviene destacar dos alzamientos frustrados en marzo y mayo por parte de algunos sectores progresistas, con motivos cambio de régimen, liberalismo progresista, drechos y libertades

Spanish Revolution of 1854: Spanish Revolution of 1854, started with a confrontation between rebel troops and government troops near the village of Vicálvaro, followed by a military coup and a popular uprising, which occurred in June/July 1854, during the reign of Isabella II of Spain, as this 'Spanish Revolution' ended the moderate decade 1844-1854 and started the progressive biennium 1854-1856

1854 'Das revolutionäre Spanien': 1854 'Das revolutionäre Spanien', 11 Artikel von Karl Marx, die die Periode der ersten bürgerlichen Revolution (1808 - 1814), die der zweiten (1820-1823) und die der dritten bürgerlichen Revolution in Spanien (1834-1843) umfaßten, wobei von diesen Artikeln in der 'New-York Daily Tribune' nur die ersten acht (bis 1820) veröffentlicht wurden

1873-1874 First Spanish Republic: First Spanish Republic 1873-1874

1873/74 Aufstand in Spanien: 1894 Vorbemerkung zur Denkschrift über den Aufstand in Spanien im Sommer 1873 'Die Bakunisten an der Arbeit', von Friedrich Engels

Republicanism in Spain: Republicanism in Spain

Da agosto 1875 monumento della vergogna: Crimini di guerra della Wehrmacht furono quelli commessi dalle forze armate tedesche durante la seconda guerra mondiale, che tra il settembre 1939 e il maggio 1945 si macchiarono di innumerevoli crimini di guerra, crimini contro le popolazioni civili e violazioni delle norme internazionali che regolavano i conflitti armati, specialmente sul fronte orientale

'Armadio della vergogna', un'espressione del giornalismo relativo a crimini di guerra commessi sul territorio italiano durante la campagna d'Italia (1943-1945) dalle truppe nazifasciste - Depuis 16 août 1875 monument d'Hermann ('Hermannsdenkmal' - 'sapere aude'), un monument situé en Rhénanie-du-Nord-Westphalie en Allemagne dans le sud de la forêt de Teutberg, qui se trouve au sud-ouest de Detmold dans le district de Lippe. Il se dresse sur le mont densément boisé de Teutberg qui s'élève à 386 mètres, au centre de la fortification circulaire de Grotenburg, mais c'est vers l'ouest et non vers le sud que la statue - inaugurée en présence de l'empereur Guillaume - est tournée - 9 CE 'Battle of the Teutoburg Forest' in the northern countryside of Osnabrück, when an alliance of Germanic peoples ambushed Roman legions and their auxiliaries, as the alliance was led by Germanic officer of Varus's auxilia 'Arminius', who had acquired Roman citizenship and had received a Roman military education, which enabled him to deceive the Roman commander methodically and anticipate the Roman army's tactical responses. The very cruel battle reportedly (by contemporary historians) for many days is commonly seen as one of the most important defeats in Roman history, bringing the triumphant period of expansion under Augustus to an abrupt end. The outcome of this battle dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania - List of ancient Germanic peoples

20th century list of conflicts and wars in Europe: 20th century list of conflicts and wars in Europe

Prior to WWI August Bebel's 'secret diplomacy' for years to keep the peace: Prior to WWI SPD's August Bebel saw with great concern that the German-British relationship was deteriorating, warning against an expansion of the German navy, as - in particular - his criticism of the naval armor led him to 'flee into secret diplomacy' and for years he had been in contact with British government circles through Heinrich Angst, the British consul general in Switzerland, warning the British government several times that their armaments efforts would be eased, and until shortly before his death, he delivered political assessments and reports to the British, but the United Kingdom missed to take the friend of deceased Karl Marx seriously

1914-1918 World War I by German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman empires: 28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918 World War I by Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria and others, a global war originating in Europe that led to the mobilisation of more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, making it one of the largest wars and one of the deadliest conflicts in history - 24 Februar 2011: 'At what cost?: Spanish neutrality in the First World War', 2009, by Carolyn S. Lowry, University of South Florida, saying 'while one expects adversity in war, the First World War left no nation untouched, and even the neutral powers did not escape unscathed, particularly Spain. The case of Spain in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries shows the ultimate demise of one of Europe’s greatest empires. While Spain had dominated the continent in earlier centuries, its great empire fell far behind as the world expanded through industrialization and further imperial conquest', and as now Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare campaign ravaged Spanish shipping, exacerbating economic hardships - Aftermath of World War I

1931-1939 Second Spanish Republic: 1931-1939 Second Spanish Republic

1936-1939 military campaign by Spanish fascists supported by Italian fascists and Nazi Germany against Second Spanish Republic: July 1936 – April 1939 'Spanish Civil War', an attack and military campaign by Spanish fascists supported by Italian fascists and Nazi Germany against the Second Spanish Republic, the 'dress rehearsal' for World War II

Since September 1939 bombing of Wielun and Warsaw: 1 September 1939 bombing of Wielun comprised air raids on the Polish town of Wielun by Germany's Luftwaffe, that destroyed at least 70% of the town's buildings (as much as 90%, in the city center), causing hundreds of civilian casualties according to historian Norman Davies, described as the first war crime committed by Germany in World War II - Since 1 September 1939 Germann bombings of Warsaw in World War II referring to the aerial bombing campaign of Warsaw by the German Luftwaffe during the siege of Warsaw in the invasion of Poland in 1939, it also may refer to German bombing raids during the Warsaw Uprising in 1944, as during the course of the war approximately 84% of the city was destroyed due to German mass bombings, heavy artillery fire and a planned demolition campaign

1939-1945 World War II by Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan: 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 World War II by Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan, a global war involving the vast majority of the world's countries - including all the great powers - forming two opposing military alliances, the Allies and the Axis, as in a state of total war, directly involving more than 100 million personnel from more than 30 countries, the major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, blurring the distinction between civilian and military resources, becoming the deadliest conflict in human history, resulting in 70 to 85 million fatalities, with more civilians than military personnel killed, as tens of millions of people died due to the Holocaust and more genocides, premeditated death from starvation, massacres, and disease, as aircraft played a major role in the conflict, including in strategic bombing of population centres, the development of nuclear weapons forced by German efforts, and the only two uses of such in war

22 June 1941-1945 Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union: Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II since 22 June 1941

24 June 1941 German air force in the skies of pre-state Israel: 8 April 2021: On 24 June 1941 during the longest and most complex sortie executed by the NSDAP-ruled German empire's air force in the skies of pre-state Israel, a Junkers plane photographed Tel Aviv, the Jordan Valley, Tiberias and an airport near Amman

September 1941-1944 Siege of Leningrad' and the 1943 'Battle of Krasny Bor': Blue Division, a unit from Francoist Spain within the German Nazi 'Wehrmacht' on the Eastern Front during World War II, participating in common war crimes of the '1941-1944 Siege of Leningrad' and the 1943 'Battle of Krasny Bor'

Since July/August 1943 liberation of the Soviet Union and eastern front countries: Depuis juillet/août 1943 les forces de l'Axe perdent l'initiative des offensives stratégiques, les Soviétiques reprennent l'initiative, reprennent et libèrent leur pays et les régions conquises par la 'Wehrmacht' sur le front de l'Est de la Seconde Guerre mondiale

6 June – August 1944 Allied casualties during liberation of Normandy, including civilians: Juin/août 1944 Pertes des Alliés - forces terrestres 209 672 tués, blessés et disparus, forces aériennes 16 714 tués et disparus - civils 50 000 tués, blessés et disparus (dont tués 33 000) - Casualties and losses of 6 June – 30 August 1944, as victims during Allied forces 'Operation Overlord' include 226,386 Allied casualties and 25,000–39,000 civilian deaths

1944/1945 liberation of France and western front countries: Since June 1944 liberation of France and western front countries

Aftermath of World War II, consequences of Nazism and continuation: Aftermath of World War II, consequences of Nazism and continuation - List of military writers including German Nazigeneral Heinz Guderian, who developed principles of Blitzkrieg 'Achtung – Panzer', and German Nazigeneral Erwin Rommel 'Infantry Attacks'

Combined efforts of the wartime Allies and resistance movements for new answers following and facing European history: Nazism and the acts of the Nazi German state affected many countries, communities, and people before, during and after World War II, as NSDAP-ruled Germany's attempts to exterminate the Jewish people, parts of slavic peoples, ethnic groups, people viewed as subhuman by NSDAP and SS ideology were eventually stopped by the combined efforts of the wartime Allies headed by Britain, the Soviet Union, the USA, and by World War II resistance movements, as also Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe and during the Holocaust led to new answers following and facing European history

14 May 1948 Provisional Government of Israel's Declaration of Independence, first saying 'ERETZ-ISRAEL (the Land of Israel, Palestine) was the birthplace of the Jewish people. Here their spiritual, religious and political identity was shaped. Here they first attained to statehood, created cultural values of national and universal significance and gave to the world the eternal Book of Books. After being forcibly exiled from their land, the people kept faith with it throughout their Dispersion and never ceased to pray and hope for their return to it and for the restoration in it of their political freedom. ... AND, BY VIRTUE OF OUR NATURAL AND HISTORIC RIGHT AND ON THE STRENGTH OF THE RESOLUTION OF THE UNITED NATIONS GENERAL ASSEMBLY, HEREBY DECLARE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A JEWISH STATE IN ERETZ-ISRAEL, TO BE KNOWN AS THE STATE OF ISRAEL - 1958-2018 list of the Basic Laws of Israel, as Basic Laws were intended to be draft chapters of a future Israeli constitution (which has been postponed since 1950), as they act as a de facto constitution until their future incorporation into a formal, unitary, written constitution, as Israel is one of 6 countries (along with Canada, New Zealand, San Marino, Saudi Arabia and the UK) that functions according to an uncodified constitution consisting of both material constitutional law (based upon cases and precedents), common law, and the provisions of these formal statutes

Timeline of Jerusalem, Israel and Judah social movements of 66 CE and aftermath: Timeline of Jerusalem riots of 66, referring to the massive unrest in the center of Roman Judea, which became the catalyst of the First Jewish–Roman War, after - according to Josephus - the violence of the year 66 initially began at Caesarea, provoked by Greeks of a certain merchant house sacrificing birds in front of a local synagogue, as the Roman garrison did not intervene there and thus the long-standing Hellenistic and Jewish religious tensions took a downward spiral, and as - in reaction - a Jewish Temple clerks ceased prayers and sacrifices for the Roman emperor at the Temple

Since 66 CE timeline of Roman empire's first Jewish–Roman War 66–73 CE: Since 66 CE timeline Roman empire's first Jewish–Roman War War 66–73 CE

66–74 AD gospel of Mark: 66–74 AD Gospel of Mark of the four canonical gospels and of the three synoptic Gospels, telling of the ministry of Jesus from his baptism by John the Baptist to his death and burial and the discovery of Jesus' empty tomb, as there is no miraculous birth or doctrine of divine pre-existence, nor, in the original ending (Mark 16:1-8), any post-resurrection appearances of Jesus, as it portrays Jesus as a heroic man of action, an exorcist, a healer, and a miracle worker, also the Son of God, but keeping his messianic nature secret

Following the AD 70 destruction of Jerusalem most scholars believe the gospel of Matthew was composed between AD 80 and 90: Setting of the gospel of Matthew, a work of the second generation of Christians, after the defining event was the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple by the Romans in AD 70 ending the course of the First Jewish–Roman War AD 66–73

Since around AD 80–110 gospel of Luke: Gospel of Luke, together with the Acts of the Apostles, it makes up a two-volume work which scholars call Luke–Acts, accounting together for 27.5% of the 'New Testament', as most probable date for its composition is around AD 80–110, and there is evidence that it was still being revised well into the 2nd century

Since AD 90–110 gospel of John: Gospel of John, the fourth of the four canonical gospels, reaching its final form around AD 90–110

April 2020 researchers say Vatican archives show pope Pius XII knew of WWII killing of Jews: 30 April 2020: Researchers studying the newly opened Vatican archives of pope Pius XII have already found evidence that the World War II-era pope knew about the mass killing of Jews from his own sources but kept it from the USA government, the Washington Post reported Wednesday, saying documents indicate pope was aware of massacre of Jews in Warsaw and Lviv from own sources, but denied it to Americans

From July 1942 German SS and police units carried out mass deportations from the Warsaw ghetto to the Treblinka killing center: As from July 1942 German SS and police units, assisted by auxiliaries, carried out mass deportations from the Warsaw ghetto to the Treblinka killing center, described as the 'Great Action', as the Germans deported about 265,000 Jews from Warsaw to Treblinka

January 1943 in German ideology not expected Jewish resistance and attack disoriented the Germans: As by the summer of 1942 it was clear to ghetto inhabitants that deportations from the ghetto meant death, and in response to these deportations, several Jewish underground organizations banded together and created an armed self-defense unit known as the Jewish Combat Organization ZOB and also a second force called the Jewish Military Union ZZW, and as in January 1943, German SS and police units returned to the Warsaw ghetto to resume mass deportations, a small group of Jewish fighters, armed with pistols, infiltrated a column of Jews being forced to the transfer point 'Umschlagplatz', and - after this group broke ranks and fought their German escorts - most of the Jewish fighters died in the battle, but the not expected resistance and attack disoriented the Germans, and as a result, the Jews who were arranged in columns at the Umschlagplatz had a chance to disperse, as in January/February 1943 German empire's army lost the battle of Stalingrad, described as the biggest defeat in the history of the German Army, after NSDAP's Adolf Hitler had declared in a public speech in September 1942 that the German army would never leave the city

Since January 1943 Jewish resistance leaders encouraged fellow ghetto inhabitants to defy deportation orders: Jewish resistance leaders also encouraged fellow ghetto inhabitants to defy deportation orders and hide from German authorities, after - seizing only 5,000-6,500 ghetto residents - the Germans suspended further deportations on January 21, and as - encouraged by the apparent success of the resistance - people in the ghetto began to construct subterranean bunkers and shelters, preparing for an uprising should the Germans - certainly not to be overcome in Warsaw in 1943 with the given means of resistance - attempt a final deportation of the remaining Jews from the ghetto, as the Jews decided against extermination without resistance, that could be told to future generations, therefore documented, e.g. by the Ringelblum archiv, because the - also consciously brought about in Jerusalem by the young man himself called upon misunderstood Jewish prophets whose scriptures must be fulfilled - martyr's death of Jesus Christ nearly 2000 years ago, which weakened the Jewish resistance to the brutal Roman empire, almost like the Nazis, wasn't the goal of the Jews in Warsaw, Poland, Europe etc during WWII

Since 19 April 1943 final act of Warsaw's Jewish resistance against the Germans, lasting 27 days: On April 19, 1943, the eve of the Passover holiday, the Jews of the Warsaw ghetto began their final act of resistance against the Germans, lasting twenty-seven days, as this act of resistance came to be known as the Warsaw ghetto uprising, as ZOB fighters were armed with only pistols, grenades (many of which were homemade), and a few automatic weapons and rifles, but they stunned the Germans and their auxiliaries on the first day of fighting, forcing German troops to retreat outside the ghetto wall, as SS leader Stroop reported losing 12 men during the first assault, as about 700 young Jewish fighters clashed with German forces, sometimes in hand-to-hand combat, as in the end the Germans razed the ghetto to the ground, burning and demolishing this part of Warsaw, block by block, and as on 16 May it was announced in a report to Berlin that 'the former Jewish Quarter in Warsaw is no more', written by Waffen-SS Jürger Stroop, born 1895 in Detmold (Lippe) near Augustdorf and the today's GFM Erwin Rommel barracks

Since June 1945 'Christian Democratic Union of Germany' political party in Germany, the major 'catch-all party' German politics, that since its re-establishment with a little changed religious affiliation included a large number of NSDAP members, in Hitler's party until empire's defeat in 1945, remaining attached to their career - Since December 1870 'German Centre Party', belonging to the political spectrum of 'Political Catholicism' that, emerging in the early 19th century after the turmoil of the Napoleonic wars, as the many Catholics found themselves in Protestant dominated states, since 1871 primarily influential during the Kaiserreich and the Weimar Republic, soon winning a quarter of the seats in the Reichstag (Imperial Parliament), and its middle position on most issues allowed it to play a decisive role in the formation of majorities, as for most of the Weimar Republic, the Centre Party was the third-largest party in the Reichstag, and - following NSDAP Adolf Hitler's rise to power in early 1933, the Centre Party was among the parties who voted for the 'Enabling Act', which granted legislative powers to Hitler's government

Demographics of Europe: Demographics of Europe - Demographics of Europe, as of 2010 Europe's population within the standard physical geographical boundaries was 740 million according to the United Nations - Demographics of the European Union, as of 2014 the population of the EU of 28 member states is about 507.4 million people

Ethnic groups in Europe: Ethnic groups in Europe - Ethnic groups in Europe by region - Ethnic groups in Europe by country

African diaspora in Europe and immigration: African diaspora in Europe by country - African immigration to Europe

Jews and Judaism in Europe: History of the Jews in Europe, stretching back over two thousand years - Jews and Judaism in Europe - Jews and Judaism in Europe by country

25 October 2020 an estimated 1.3 million Jews live in Europe today: 25 October 2020: Europe has lost almost 60% of its Jewish population over the past 50 years, mainly as a result of the collapse of the Soviet Union, as only about 9% of the global Jewish population now lives in Europe, compared with nearly 90% in the late 19th century (but similar to the proportion 1,000 years ago), and as in total an estimated 1.3 million Jews live in Europe in 2020, about 0.1% of the continent’s population, with two-thirds of them in France, the UK and Germany

8 April 2021 Holocaust Remembrance Day: 8. April Gedenktag für die Märtyrer und Helden des Holocaust 2021

Kurdish diaspora in Europe: Kurdish diaspora in Europe - European people of Kurdish descent - Kurdish people by country of citizenship

23 October 2019 Syrian Kurdish man set himself on fire outside the UN: 23 October 2019: Syrian Kurdish man, who resides in Germany, set himself on fire outside the UN refugee agency headquarters in Geneva, then tried to enter the UNHCR building, and was flown by helicopter to the specialised burns unit at the university hospital in Lausanne

Middle Eastern diaspora in Europe: Middle Eastern diaspora in Europe by country

Romani in Europe: Romani in Europe by country - Romani people in Germany - Central Council of German Sinti and Roma

8 April 2021 International Roma Day: 8. April 2021: Sinti und Roma sind in Europa immer noch von Apartheid und Gewalt bedroht, und der Internationale Roma Tag erinnert daran, dass es eine gesamtgesellschaftliche Aufgabe ist, die Bürgerrechte zu stärken und den Antiziganismus kontinuierlich und dauerhaft zu ächten, weil es beschämend und nicht hinnehmbar ist daß Sinti und Roma in vielen Teilen Europas - trotz ihrer Jahrhunderte alten Geschichte und trotz der Erfahrung des Holocaust - noch heute mit Apartheid und Gewalt konfrontiert werden obwohl sie Staatsbürger ihrer Heimatländer sind

Human rights in Europe: Human rights in Europe - European Network of National Human Rights Institutions - Human rights by country - List of Human Rights organisations

Since 1791 emancipation: Timeline of emancipation, i.e. years when legal equality was 'granted' to Jews, since 1791 in France - Année d'obtention de l'égalité des droits pour les Juifs en Europe

1794 first general abolition of slavery: Abolitionist movement to end slavery and first general abolition of slavery on 4 February 1794 in France - Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom

2015 EU parliament accused of 'hiding away' proof of torture by Assad regime: 19 June 2015: European parliament accused of 'hiding away' proof of torture by Assad regime, after MEPs decided against holding a major public exhibition of photographs documenting torture and abuse in Syrian Assad regime institutions, deeming the images too provocative, 'disturbing and offensive', wanting to host only cultural events and exhibits

2016 international refugee crisis and EU officials: 12 March 2016: As thousands of desperate refugees remain trapped at border camp between Greece and Macedonia and as 'Europe is on the cusp of a largely self-induced humanitarian crisis' according to UN, USA Assistant Secretary of State for European and Eurasian Affairs Victoria Nuland visits the refugee camp in Idomeni, but there is no European official walking around the muddy fields and talking with aid agency workers, refugees and migrants, because European officials prefer hotels in Moscow, Tehran, Vienna, Brussels and after all Geneva, talking and laughing with war criminals and perpetrators - 15 March 2016: Macedonia forcibly ('they hit everyone – women, children, men') returns thousands of exhausted refugees to Greece, after desperate men, women and children fled Greek camp a day earlier - 15 March 2016: Seeing Macedonian authorities sending people back in trucks to Greece late at night, dropping children off shivering, wet and disoriented, 'Save the Children' criticizes 'the wholly inadequate response of European leaders to this crisis, which treats people like bargaining chips and leaves them stranded with no safe plan for their future' - 14 juillet 2016: Des migrants violentés par des forces hongroises à la frontière hongroise avec la Serbie

2017 violence in Spain: 1 October 2017: Muted response from EU leaders over police crackdown in Catalonia, as Belgian PM Michel and senior MEP Verhofstadt among the few national leaders to denounce violence and human right groups also condemn the violence

January 2019 HRW report: 17 January 2019: Migration used to stoke fear in the EU, justify abusive policies, and block meaningful reform in 2018, even as arrivals at borders decreased, according to HRW in its report 2019, saying in 2017/2018 that xenophobic populists hostile to human rights shaped politics even when they failed to win at the ballot box, and European governments seemed determined to keep migrants away at all costs

June 2019 demanded prosecution of the EU for the deaths of thousands of migrants who drowned in the Mediterranean: 3 June 2019: The EU and member states should be prosecuted for the deaths of thousands of migrants who drowned in the Mediterranean fleeing Libya, according to a detailed legal submission to the international criminal court ICC

November 2019 EU democracy is under threat: 4 November 2019: According to the YouGov poll of 12,500 people in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Slovakia, published by George Soros’s Open Societies Foundations, majorities between 51% and 61% in six countries - including Germany - feel democracy is under threat, 30 years after the fall of the Berlin Wall, but also demonstrating 'that where the establishment has failed citizens, civil society is perceived as a trustworthy counterpart'

March 2020 ignorant and violent EU amid war crimes against Syrian people: 2 March 2020: Refugees and migrants trying to reach Europe have clashed violently with Greek riot police as Turkey claimed more than 76,000 people were now heading for an ignorant EU amid war crimes, as a result of the escalating war in Syria where 33 Turkish soldiers, defending civilians, were killed by Russian-backed dictatorship troops, as a million civilians have been displaced since December inside Syria near the Turkish border in desperate winter conditions, and as Turkey, already home to 3.7 million Syrian refugees, decided to open the Turkish side of the border to the EU, now headed by CDU's von der Leyen - 2 March 2020: Child drowns at sea off Greece in first fatality of EU von der Leyen's cronyism with Russian, Iranian and Assad regime's war criminals

2 March 2020 UN says Russia committed war crimes in Syria as world expects end of impunity: 2 March 2020: Russia committed war crimes in Syria, finds UN report, as Putin regime blamed for indiscriminate attacks in civilian areas without 'a specific military objective', also documenting 'unprecedented levels of displacement and dire conditions for civilians' in Syria

4 March 2020 doctors who flew to Lesbos to help refugees forced to flee: 4 March 2020: Doctors who flew to Lesbos to volunteer at Moria migrant camp have described how they were forced to flee after being set upon by a mob wielding nail-headed cudgels, the latest in a series of violent incidents targeting international aid workers, amid an increasingly hostile climate, enforced by the Greek government and EU commission, praising Greece as 'shield' and announcing taxpayers's €700m in EU funds for Greece, including €350m available immediately to upgrade 'infrastructure' at the border, instead of aid and tackling the causes of the refugee crisis

16 March 2020 child died in fire in overcrowded Moria camp: 16 March 2020: A young child died in a fire in an overcrowded migrant camp on the Greek island of Lesbos, as fire burned through two containers used as living quarters by people in the Moria camp, as well as some tents, as activists say 'European and Greek authorities who continue to contain people in such inhumane conditions have a responsibility'

17/18 December 2020 Europe's containment policies resulted in mental health crisis for refugees: 17 December 2020: Years of entrapment on Aegean islands has resulted in a mental health crisis for thousands of refugees, with one in three contemplating suicide, a report by support experts has revealed, as containment policies pursued by the EU have also spurred ever more people to attempt to end their lives, according to a report released by the International Rescue Committee IRC, ahead of the 'International Migrants Day' observed by all UN member states, committed to Human Rights, on 18 December 2020

8 April 2021 AI says hidden human rights crises threaten post-covid global security: 8 April 2021: Hidden human rights crises threaten post-covid global security, Amnesty International says, adding that ‘crises will multiply’ if escalating repression by governments under pretext of pandemic ignored, according to new elected secretary general and Amnesty International Report 2020/21, documenting the human rights situation in 149 countries in 2020, as well as providing global and regional analysis

4 July 2021 rights groups say companies have human rights and environmental obligations, calling for corporate accountability laws: 4 July 2021: Almost 30 organisations have joined forces to call for the UK to follow in the footsteps of its European partners by introducing corporate accountability laws requiring companies to undertake human rights and environmental due diligence across their supply chains, as the groups, including the TUC, Friends of the Earth and Amnesty International, say systemic human rights abuses and environmentally destructive practices are commonplace in the global operations and supply chains of UK businesses, and voluntary approaches to tackle the problem have failed, as some countries have already passed laws on supply chain due diligence, while the EU is to introduce obligations on all companies operating in the single market

13 January 2022 court jails former Syrian Assad regime's intelligence officer A. Raslan for life: 13 January 2022 after his arrest in 2014, former Syrian Assad regime's colonel Anwar Raslan - who led a unit of regimes's General Intelligence Directorate -, is sentenced by a German court to life in prison, after prosecutors had accused Anwar Raslan of 58 murders in a Damascus prison where they say at least 4,000 opposition activists were tortured in 2011 and 2012 - Das Oberlandesgericht in Koblenz hat am Donnerstag den früheren syrischen Geheimdienstoffizier Anwar Raslan der Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit schuldig befunden, und verurteilte ihn zu lebenslanger Haft. Der Prozess wurde unter dem Weltrechtsprinzip geführt, das es ermöglicht, in Deutschland auch schwere Straftaten in Drittstaaten zur Anklage zu bringen. - 13 January 2022 Anwar Raslan sentenced to imprisonment for life and given a week to appeal the verdict, according to 'Wikipedia'

Januar 2022 OLG Koblenz nutzt das Weltrechtsprinzip, ECCHR vertritt Nebenkläger: 13. Januar 2022: Weil der Prozess vor dem ICC in Den Haag derzeit noch unmöglich ist (Syrien unter Assad ist dem Gerichtshof nicht beigetreten), und der UN-Sicherheitsrat ihn nicht beauftragt, weil Rußlands Putin Regime - mit dem syrischen Assad Regime verbündet - es verhindert, hat das OLG Koblenz in 2022 das Weltrechtsprinzip genutzt, das in vielen Ländern umgesetzt werden kann. Es greift seit 2002 bei Straftaten wie Völkermord, Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit oder Kriegsverbrechen. Sie können auch dann in Deutschland verfolgt werden, wenn die Tat im Ausland begangen wurde und weder Täter noch Opfer Deutsche sind. Täter schwerster Verbrechen sollen in Deutschland nicht frei leben können. Menschenrechtler werteten den Koblenzer Prozess als wichtiges Signal. Von einem 'Meilenstein' spricht RA Patrick Kroker vom Europäischen Zentrum für Verfassungs- und Menschenrechte ECCHR, der einige Nebenkläger vertreten hat. - 14 January 2022: Syrian survivors cling to hope Raslan case will mark end of regime’s impunity. 'The Guardian' reports

European Court of Human Rights - Cour européenne des droits de l'homme - Site officiel

European Court of Human Rights judgments: List of European Court of Human Rights judgments

Since 1999 cases of Russian military abuses brought forward by Chechen civilians: Since 1999 cases of Russian military abuses brought forward by Chechen civilians against Russia in the course of the Second Chechen War, with 104 rulings to date as of April 2009 (including regarding the cases of torture and extrajudicial executions)

January 2014 Saudi torture remains unpunished: 14 January 2014: Four Britons, who say they were beaten and tortured by 'Mabahith', have been told by the European court of human rights they cannot sue Saudi Arabia in the UK courts over torture

May 2014: 12 May 2014: European Court of Human Rights orders Turkey to pay Cyprus over invasion

June 2014: 13 June 2014: Ukraine filed a lawsuit at the European Court of Human Rights concerning the kidnapping by terrorists of orphans from Snizhne

July 2014: 24 July 2014: Poland broke human rights convention on suspects held by the CIA, ECHR finds for Abu Zubaydah and Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri, who argued they were tortured by USA agents in a Polish forest prison

September 2014: 24 September 2014: Russia's FSB spy agency’s interception of data including texts and emails challenged by Russian journalist and now examined by European Court of Human Rights

2015: 14 April 2015: ECHR postpones Ukraine's lawsuit against Russia over the actions of the Russian regime in Donbas and Crimea for six months at Russian request - 3 December 2015: Ukrainian citizens have filed 700 complaints to the ECHR against the Russian Federation in connection with military actions in Donetsk and Luhansk regions and the occupation of Crimea, as the court is expected to make the first ruling on these complaints in the near future

January 2016: 13 January 2016: ECHR to rule on prison term for Russian activist Kashapov, who was arrested in December 2014 for criticizing Crimea annexation by Russian regime in 2014

21 May 2016: 21 May 2016: Australian law firm wants compensation from Russian regime for MH17 crash and its President Putin on behalf of families of victims of July 2014 catastrophe, the relevant application was submitted on 9 May 2016 to the European Court of Human Rights - 21 mai 2016: Les familles des victimes du vol MH17 de la Malaysia Airlines, abattu alors qu'il survolait l'Ukraine en 2014, poursuivent en justice la Russie et son président Poutine auprès de la Cour européenne des droits de l'homme

31 May 2016: 31 May 2016: Russian regime must pay editor for breaching freedom of expression rights of Yelena Mikhaylovna Nadtoka, editor-in-chief of the newspaper Vecherniy Novocherkassk, who was found guilty in 2004, in a breach of her rights under article 10 of the European convention, of causing insult to a politician, ECHR rules saying that the newspaper’s article sought to complain of corruption on the part of the mayor of Novocherkassk, which was a subject of public interest

October 2016: 11 October 2016: Chess master Garry Kasparov wins a case against Russian regime at the European Court of Human Rights for unlawful arrest in 2007 and violation of his right to attend a rally in Samara he missed as a result of his detention in Moscow

January/February 2017: 26 January 2017: 'Among the Council of Europe member, the majority of judgments defining at least one violation of the European Convention on Human Rights in 2016 was delivered against Russia (222 judgments)', followed by Turkey with 77 judgments, the ECHR says - 10 February 2017: Ukrainian librarian Natalya Sharina held under house arrest in Russia since October 2015, has taken her case to the European court of human rights

April 2017: 13 April 2017: Russian authorities failed to take sufficient steps to stop the 2004 Beslan school siege in North Ossetia in which more than 330 people were killed, the European court of human rights has ruled

June 2017: 20 June 2017: Russian law '2013 federal statute' encourages homophobia and discrimination, the European court of human rights has ruled, in a sharply worded rebuke to the Russian regime

September 2017: 25 September 2017: Portuguese schoolchildren from the area struck by the country’s worst forest fires are seeking crowdfunding, supported by the NGO Global Legal Action Network, to sue 47 European countries, alleging that the states’ failure to tackle climate change threatens their right to life

October 2017: 10 October 2017: A group of members of the Catalan Parliament have taken Monday's Catalan plenary suspension imposed by the Spanish Constitutional Court to the European Court of Human Rights

March 2018: 20 March 2018: Turkey acted illegally by detaining journalists Mehmet Altan and Sahin Alpay who were arrested in the wake of the military coup attempt in July 2016, the European Court of Human Rights has ruled, saying there had been a violation of personal liberty and security under Article 5/1 of the European Convention

May 2018: 25 May 2018: A group of 270 relatives of the Dutch victims of flight MH17 downed in July 2014 in Russian-occupied Donbas will lodge a complaint against Russia with the European Court of Human Rights ECHR

July 2018: 18 July 2018: Investigative journalist Anna Politkovskaya’s murder inquiry in Russia was 'inadequate and violated human rights’, as those who commissioned the killing have not yet been identified, the European Court of Human Rights ruled, ordering Russia to pay 20,000 euros in damages to relatives of murdered journalist

July 2018: 18 July 2018: European Court of Human Rights found that Russia had violated five articles of the European Convention on Human Rights in its arrest and conviction of the Pussy Riot protest group in 2012, sentencing three members to two years in prison after performing a protest song in a Moscow cathedral

November 2018 Alexei Navalny arrests case: 13 November 2018: Russian opposition politician Alexei Navalny was stopped at the border and barred from leaving Russia as he was about to travel to a court hearing at the European Court for Human Rights in France - 15 November 2018: Russia’s repeated arrests of opposition leader Alexei Navalny since 2012 are politically motivated, the European court of human rights ECHR has ruled, in a sharp rebuke of the Russian regime's authorities

April 2019: 9 April 2019: The European court of human rights has ruled that Russia violated the rights of the opposition leader Alexei Navalny by placing him under house arrest in 2014 and imposing other restrictive measures

August 2019 Magnitski case: 27 août 2019: La Cour européenne des droits de l'Homme a reconnu coupable la Russie pour la mort de l'avocat anti-corruption Sergueï Magnitski

September 2019 Russian Crimea annexation case: 11 September 2019: The Russian state directed and ran the military coup in Crimea and its subsequent annexation in 2014, Ukraine has told the European court of human rights

10 July 2020 Dutch government brings Russia before the ECHR for its role in the downing of Flight MH17: 10 July 2020: Dutch government decided to bring Russia before the European Court of Human Rights ECHR for its role in the downing of Flight MH17 over occupied Donbas on July 17, 2014

15 November 2020 Marina Litvinenko submits €3.5m ECHR claim against Russia: 15 November 2020: The widow of Alexander Litvinenko has submitted a claim against Russia to the European court of human rights ECHR, seeking €3.5m in compensation for his murder by radiation poisoning in London, as Marina Litvinenko is requesting punitive damages and payment for accumulated lost income after a public inquiry concluded that her husband’s murder in 2006 was probably ordered by Vladimir Putin, and as submission also asks the Strasbourg judges to rule on the significance of the pattern of targeted assassinations and attempted killings allegedly carried out by Russian state agents across Europe and the Middle East

30 November 2020 33 European states ordered to respond to youth activists' climate lawsuit: 30 November 2020: The European court of human rights has ordered 33 European governments to respond to a landmark climate lawsuit lodged by six youth campaigners, British 'Guardian' has learned

14 January 2021 European court agrees to hear Ukrainian case on rights violations in Crimea: 14 January 2021: European Court of Human Rights ECHR will hear part of a case brought by Ukraine alleging Russian human rights violations in the Crimea peninsula annexed by Putin regime in 2014, the court said

21 January 2021 ECHR rules Putin regime responsible for murder of civilians, looting and burning of homes: 21 January 2021: Russia committed human rights violation in Georgia war, ECHR rules, as European court of human rights says in a landmark judgment Putin regime responsible for murder of civilians, looting and burning of homes and the torture of Georgian prisoners of war in 2008 war with Georgia

17 February 2021 ECHR tells Russia to free Alexei Navalny on safety grounds: The European court of human rights has told Russia to free Alexei Navalny, prompting a new standoff between Europe and Moscow over the fate of Vladimir Putin’s staunchest critic, as in the ruling published on Wednesday, the Strasbourg-based court granted Navalny a temporary release from jail because it said the government 'could not provide sufficient safeguards for his life and health'

21 September 2021 Russia responsible for the 2006 killing of Alexander Litvinenko, ECHR has found: In September 2021, the European Court of Human Rights ECHR found that Russia was responsible for the killing of Alexander Litvinenko (a violation of Article 2). The Court ruled that there was a 'strong' case that Andrey Lugovoy and Dmitry Kovtun had been acting as agents of the Russian State, and that Russia had not carried out an 'effective domestic investigation', nor 'identifi[ed] and punish[ed] ... those responsible for the murder', as followoing the poisoning Lugovoy - a former KGB employee like Vladimir Putin - became a member of Russia's lower house of parliament Duma for the nationalist party LDPR - 21 September 2021 Judgment Carter v. Russia 'Russia was responsible for assassination of Aleksandr Litvinenko in the UK', ECHR's judgement document in PDF format

29 March 2023 Switzerland and France accused of lack of climate action in ECHR hearing: 23 March 2023: The governments of Switzerland and France have been accused of breaching the human rights of their citizens by not acting decisively enough on climate change at a landmark legal hearing in Strasbourg, as a panel of judges at the European court of human rights ECHR heard petitions from a group of Swiss women and a French former mayor seeking to bolster climate action in their countries

Since 2007 European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights ECCHR, an independent, nonprofit non-governmental organization focusing on legal issues and the enforcement of human rights by holding state and non-state actors responsible for egregious abuses

June 2018 legal claim against Italy: 29 June 2018: After Italian officials allegedly met with Syria's top military adviser, legal claim against Italy filed by ECCHR at the European commission alleging violation of EU rules

Asylum and right of asylum in Europe: Right of asylum in Europe - Right of asylum in the European Union

Immigration to Europe: Immigration to Europe

2014-2016 International and European refugee and migrant crisis: 2014-2016 International and European refugee and migrant crisis - Border barriers constructed during the European migrant crisis

2014: 29 September 2014: A record 3,072 people had died attempting to reach Europe during the first nine months of 2014, the International Organisation for Migration says, urging the world’s governments to engage to stop this violence against desperate migrants

2015: During the first half of 2015, large numbers of Syrian refugees crosses into Europe, reaching 313 thousands - UNHCR applications across Europe by early August 2015 - 19 September 2015: In the international refugee crisis European neighbours turn ugly in a chaotic series of border confrontations and diplomatic disputes, as thousands fleeing war are blocked and shunted between Croatia, Hungary, Serbia and Slovenia and UN warns European unity at risk

Since 2015: Since 2015 Border barriers constructed during the European refugee and migrant crisis - Since June 2015 Hungarian border barrier - 28 November: Soldiers in Macedonia have begun erecting a metal fence on the country's southern border with Greece

2016: 30 January 2016: More than 52,000 refugees and migrants crossed the eastern Mediterranean to reach Europe in the first four weeks of January, more than 35 times as many as in the same period 2015 - 10 mars 2016: Après la fermeture de la route des Balkans aux migrants, la Grèce doit être soutenue, a déclaré la conseillère fédérale de la Suisse Simonetta Sommaruga à la réunion des ministres de l'intérieur et de la justice de l'UE

June 2018 EU to triple spending to €5bn a year targeting refugees and migrants: 12 June 2018: Unable to tackle causes of refugee crises, EU to triple spending to €5bn a year targeting refugees and migrants, as new border infrastructure, including scanners, automated number plate recognition systems, mobile laboratories for sample analysis, the establishment of teams of sniffer dogs, will be prioritised

June 2018 sharp fall in number of people seeking asylum in EU: 18 June 2018: The EU’s asylum office counted 728,470 applications for international protection in 2017, a 44% reduction on the 1.3m applications the previous year, after more than 1 million people entered the EU in 2015, many fleeing the war in Syria

July 2019 EU states' progress on plans to redistribute refugees: 23 July 2019: UNHCR and the International Organization for Migration said in a joint statement 'the crucial role played by NGOs must be acknowledged (and) they should not be criminalised nor stigmatised for saving lives at sea', as 14 EU states made progress on plans to redistribute refugees rescued in the Mediterranean, while eight said they would actively take part, including Croatia, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Lithuania, Luxembourg, and Portugal

31 December 2019 belief in Europe shattered: 31 December 2019: When photographer Alice Aedy first covered the refugee crisis in 2016 she believed Europe would respond with humanity to images of families seeking shelter and safety, now saying 'we have not only failed, we have broken promises'

5 March 2020 Turkey deploys police forces along its border with Greece to halt violent pushback of migrants: 5 March 2020: Turkey is deploying 1,000 special police forces along its border with Greece to halt the pushback of migrants towards its territory, Suleyman Soylu said, adding that 164 migrants had been wounded by Greek authorities

7/8 March 2020 refugee center set on fire: 7 mars 2020: Un centre d'accueil pour réfugiés sur l'île grecque de Lesbos, géré par un ONG suisse, a été incendié samedi, après des membres de l'extrême droite grecque et des habitants de l'île ont récemment protesté contre l'arrivée à Lesbos de plus de 1700 migrants et réfugiés venus de Turquie - 8 March 2020: Blaze at International School of Peace for Refugee Children in Lesbos, founded by Israelis, comes amid tense standoff with Turkey over refugees, as suspected arson caused second fire in under a week at a migrant installation

Since early summer 2021 Belarus–EU border crisis: Since early summer 2021 Belarus–European Union border crisis, a refugee and migrant crisis consisting of an influx of several tens of thousands of illegal immigrants, mainly from Iraq and Africa, to Lithuania, Latvia, and Poland via those countries' borders with Belarus. The crisis was triggered by the severe deterioration in Belarus–EU relations, following 2020 Belarusian presidential election, 2020–2021 Belarusian protests, forced repatriation of opposition activists including Ryanair Flight 4978 incident, and sanctions against autocratic Lukashenko - 17 novembre 2021: Bloqués aux portes de l'Europe, des milliers de migrants massés à la frontière polonaise, et France24 se consacre à la crise migratoire dans le nord de l'Europe pour tenter de comprendre la situation qui voit des milliers de migrants, principalement de Syrie, der l'Irak et du Liban - 18 novembre 2021: Les forces de sécurité polonaise ont arrêté une centaine de migrants dans la nuit de mercredi à jeudi alors qu'ils tentaient de franchir la frontière avec la Biélorussie

Causes of refugee crises include war and civil war, human rights violations, environment and climate crises, economic hardship

Since 2011 Syrian refugees due to Assad's, Iranian and Russian war against the Syrian people: Migrant motives in the European refugee and migrant crisis since 2014/2015 - primarily credited to the inundation of refugees due to political and social conflicts in regions such as Syria, the greatest number of refugees fleeing to Europe originate from Syria due to Assad's, Iranian and Russian war against the Syrian people

2016: 2008-2016 List refugees and total population of concern by UN region, includes 21,288,728 people in Africa in 2016, 31,168,078 people in Asia in 2016, 8,061,269 people in Latin America in 2016, and 6,210,994 people in Europe in 2016

June 2018: 5,645,518 total registered Syrian refugees on 7 June 2018, according to UNHCR

4 July 2019: 5,625,871 registered Syrian refugees on 4 July 2019, as Assad's, Iranian and Russian murderous war against the Syrian people continues in its ninth year and as Russia and Assad regime step up murderous airstrikes against civilians in Idlib province on 22 July 2019

Culture in Europe: Culture in Europe and Languages in Europe - Languages in the European Union - List of endangered languages in Europe

Education in Europe and Education in the European Union: Education in Europe - Education in the European Union

European Schools: Lists of schools in Europe, listed alphabetically by 'Wikipedia', as word 'school' - since ancient Israel and the prophet Isaiah (Jesaja 740-701 v.u.Z.) - applies to a variety of educational organizations in the Middle Ages, including town, church, and monastery schools. During the late medieval period, students attending town schools were usually between the ages of seven and fourteen. Instruction for boys in such schools ranged from the basics of literacy (alphabet, syllables, simple prayers and proverbs) to more advanced instruction in the Latin language. Occasionally, these schools may also have taught rudimentary arithmetic or letter writing and other skills useful in business - In the EU education is the responsibility of Member States, nevertheless EU institutions play a supporting role as the union funds educational, vocational and citizenship-building programmes which encourage EU citizens to take advantage of opportunities which the EU offers its citizens to live, study and work in other countries. The best known of these is the Erasmus programme, as 'Wikipedia' lists more examples of educational policies and ongoing, developping initiatives of the EU - European Schools, controlled by the Member States to provide a multilingual and multicultural education

List of schools in Belgium and regions: List of schools in Belgium, including list of schools in East Flanders, in West Flanders, in Limburg, and in Brussels

List of schools in the Czech Republic: List of schools in the Czech Republic - Since 1348 Charles University in Prague, the oldest and largest university in the Czech Republic, and also one of the oldest universities in Europe in continuous operation. Today, the university consists of 17 faculties located in Prague, Hradec Králové, and Plzen. The Charles University belongs to top three universities in Central and Eastern Europe and is ranked around 200–300 in the world - Since 1088 University of Bologna, founded by an organised guild of students - hence studiorum - and the oldest university in continuous operation in the world, also the first university in the sense of a higher-learning and degree-awarding institute, as the word universitas was coined at its foundation - Since 1257 Sorbonne university, when Sorbonne College was established by Robert de Sorbon as part of the medieval University of Paris, remaining one of the most prestigious universities in Europe and the world.

List of schools in Estland: List of schools in Estland

List of schools in France: List of schools in France

List of schools in 'Germany', until 1871 free imperial cities, hanseatic cities and territorial rule: List of schools in 'Germany', until 1871 free imperial cities, hanseatic cities and territorial rule

List of schools in Greece: List of schools in Greece

List of yeshivos in Europe (before World War II): List of yeshivos in Europe (before World War II)

List of schools in Lithuania: List of schools in Lithuania

List of schools in Norway and counties, including Nordland county: List of schools in Norway and counties, including Nordland county, Narvik town and seaport and Bodø town, the administrative centre of Nordland county

List of schools in Poland: List of schools in Poland

List of schools in Romania: List of schools in Romania, listed alphabetically by county by 'Wikipedia' - Since 17th century 'Princely Academy of Bucharest' until the beginning of the 19th century, Since 17th century 'Princely Academy of Bucharest' - one of the earliest academic institutions in Wallachia - until the beginning of the 19th century, when Ottoman Sultan forbade the existence of Greek schools, and as - following the 1853-56 Crimean War fought by an alliance of France, the Ottoman Empire against Crimea, the UK and Piedmont-Sardinia, when Russia loses the Danube Delta and Southern Bessarabia - in 1864 the purely academic branch being converted into the University of Bucharest, while the secondary education one was organized as the current Saint Sava National College

List of schools in Ukraine List of schools in Ukraine, including Donetsk oblast and Mariupol city and seaport, Kharkiv oblast, Lozova Gymnasium among others, Kyiv oblast and Kyiv capital city including many schools listed by 'Wikipedia', Lviv city and oblast, bordering Poland, Odessa oblast's Bolhrad Gymnasium, Fontanka School, Odessa Secondary School No. 121, and more, Rivne oblast, Ukrainian Gymnasium Rivne and more, Volyn oblast, Lutsk Gymnasium 21 since 1986, among others, Zakarpattia oblast, Uzhhorod city and since 1613 Uzhhorod public gymnasium school, in March 2022 with about 800 students, according to gymnasium's homepage

20 March 2022 Mariupol art school sheltering 400 students, citizens bombed by Russia, city council says: 20 March 2022: Mariupol art school sheltering 400 students, citizens bombed by Russian military, city council says, following the bombing of a theatre in Mariupol where hundreds of civilians took shelter last week and were trapped beneath rubble in a basement shelter, as the seaport city of Mariupol has been encircled by the Russian troops, cut from energy, food and medical supplies, and as local authorities said the siege has killed at least 2,300 people and some of them had to be buried in mass graves

Children and European laws on child protection, migration, and history of education in Europe: List of international and European laws on child protection and migration, that are legally binding conventions, treaties and directives. The international legal framework concerning children in migration and mobility provides safeguards in relation to asylum and international protection, labour regulations, the prevention of sexual exploitation and trafficking in human beings, international standards for migrant workers, child victims of crime and the judiciary, as well as international private law for child protection and family matters

Childhood, familiy and child welfare in Europe: Childhood in Europe - Family in Europe - Child welfare in Europe, included in 'Wikipedia' page 'Child welfare by country'

Children's rights in Europe: Children's rights by country, including European countries - Domestic violence by country, including European countries (as this page last edited on 21 January 2020 only included Europe's Russia and the United Kingdom)

1 April 2022 Russian war against Ukraine with devastating consequences on children: 1 April 2022: Russian regime's war in and against Ukraine is having devastating consequences on children including grave violations of children’s rights, as to date over 3.5 million people have fled Ukraine including 1.5 million children - arriving in Poland, Slovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, and more European countries -, 'Eurochild' says in a letter to the heads of EU institutions adding all children have the right to be protected

History of education in Europe: History of education in Europe

1 September 2020 European children head back to school under shadow of covid-19: 1 September 2020: European children head back to school under shadow of covid-19, as teachers and parents across the continent have raised concern the reopening of schools will accelerate the spread of the pandemic coming from China, but governments have insisted it should go ahead

24 October 2020 children's book tells story of Daphne Caruana Galizia: 24 October 2020: Children's book tells story of Maltese journalist Daphne Caruana Galizia, as her friend Gattaldo recounts her battles against corruption for young readers, saying 'she has left a strong legacy and here in Malta I see it', 'there is a realisation that democracy doesn’t stop with the vote'

Universities and colleges in Europe: Universities and colleges in Europe - Lists of universities and colleges in Europe - Universities and colleges in Europe by country - European student organizations

Universities and colleges in Europe by type: Universities and colleges in Europe by type - Universities and colleges in Europe by type by country

International universities: International universities - United Nations University

Since 1972 European University Institute in Florence: Since 1972 European University Institute, an international postgraduate and post-doctoral teaching and research institute established by EU member states to contribute to cultural and scientific development in the social sciences, located in the small city of Fiesole, a suburb of Florence in Italy

20 July 2020 emancipation of the black mind: 20 July 2020: In Nigeria, colonial thinking affects everyone, and true emancipation of the black mind means questioning every communal understanding we take for granted, according to Eniola Anuoluwapo Soyemi, a political theorist and a Max Weber Fellow at the European University Institute

History of science and science and technology in Europe: History of science - Science and technology in Europe

Science in Ancient Greece: Ancient Greek science - Ancient Greek medicine

Natural history museums in Greece: Natural history museums in Greece - Archaeological museums in Greece - Archaeological Museum of Piraeus - Ethnographic museums in Greece

Museums of ancient Greece: Museums of ancient Greece in Greece - Museum of Ancient Greek Technology

August 2020 fifth-century BC amphorae underwater museum inaugurated: 2 August 2020: Greece has inaugurated its first underwater museum, a trove of fifth-century BC amphorae labelled the 'Parthenon of shipwrecks', off the coast of Alonissos island in the western Aegean, as site of the wreck will be open to tours by certified amateur divers from August to October, while those who can’t dive can follow a virtual reality tour at an information centre

Science museums in Greece: Science museums in Greece

Music in Europe: Music in Europe - European music by country - European musical instruments by country

Ancient Greek musical instruments: Ancient Greek musical instruments

6th to 15th centuries medieval music in Europe: Medieval music encompasses the music of the Western Europe during the Middle Ages, from approximately the 6th to 15th centuries, the first and longest era of Western classical music and followed by the Renaissance music - Polyphony in the European music since High Middle Ages - Since about 1200 Polyphonic Era

Franco-Flemish School first international style since the unification of Gregorian chant in the 9th century: Franco-Flemish School - also called Netherlandish School, Burgundian School, or Northern School, refers to the style of polyphonic vocal music composition originating from France and from the Burgundian Netherlands, as the spread of their technique, especially after the revolutionary development of printing, produced the first true international style since the unification of Gregorian chant in the 9th century - Franco-Flemish composers

15th–16th centuries important polyphonic schools and social development: 15th–16th centuries important polyphonic schools

List of Renaissance composers by region and period: List of Renaissance composers by region and period, since 16th century including the Americas and Cuba

16th/17th centuries Venetian School of composers: 1532/1533 – August 1585 Andrea Gabrieli, an Italian composer, organist and the uncle of the somewhat more famous Giovanni Gabrieli, the first internationally renowned members of the Venetian School of composers, extremely influential in spreading the Venetian style in Italy as well as in Germany - 1554/1557 – August 1612 Giovanni Gabrieli, an Italian composer and organist, and one of the most influential musicians of his time, representing the culmination of the style of the Venetian School

1567–1643 Claudio Monteverdi: 1567 – 29 November 1643 Claudio Giovanni Antonio Monteverdi, an Italian composer of both secular and sacred music and a pioneer in the development of opera, considered a crucial transitional figure between the Renaissance and Baroque periods of music history

1571–1621 Michael Praetorius: Michael Praetorius September 1571 – 15 February 1621, a German composer, organist, and music theorist

1585-1672 Heinrich Schütz: 1585-1672 Heinrich Schütz, a German composer and organist, generally regarded as the most important German composer before Johann Sebastian Bach, as well as one of the most important composers of the time, credited with bringing the Italian style to Germany and continuing its evolution from the Renaissance into the Early Baroque

1685-1750 Johann Sebastian Bach and list of music students: 1685-1750 Johann Sebastian Bach - List of music students by teacher

Approximately 1600 to 1750 'Baroque music': Approximately 1600 to 1750 'Baroque music', a period or style of music that followed the Renaissance music era, and was followed in turn by the Classical era, with the galant style marking the transition between Baroque and Classical eras

Since 1730 Classical era of music: Since 1730 Classical era of music between roughly 1730 and 1820, and later, as best-known composers from this period are Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, Felix Mendelssohn, Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms etc. - In classical music, musical development is a process by which a musical idea is communicated in the course of a composition, referring to the transformation and restatement of initial material, as development is often contrasted with musical variation, which is a slightly different means to the same end, and carried out upon portions of material treated in many different presentations and combinations at a time, while variation depends upon one type of presentation at a time

1916-1922 French musician (and soldier) Maurice Ravel in 'Lyons-la-Forêt', beginning in Germany's WWI: Séjours connus à Lyons-la-Forêt du compositeur français Maurice Ravel, et des correspondances liées à ses séjours connus à Lyons-la-Forêt en août 1916 durant une courte permission alors qu'il était engagé comme soldat, de juin à septembre 1917, en septembre 1920 et d'août à septembre 1922 - La Première Guerre mondiale du 28 juillet 1914 au 11 novembre 1918 des Empires centraux l'Allemagne et l'Autriche-Hongrie, surprit Ravel en pleine composition. Dès le début du conflit, le compositeur chercha à s'engager mais, déjà exempté de service militaire en 1895 en raison de sa faible constitution (1,61 m) il fut refusé pour être 'trop léger de deux kilos'. Dès lors, l’inaction devint une torture pour Ravel. À force de démarches pour être incorporé dans l'aviation c'est finalement comme conducteur d'un camion militaire qu'il surnomma 'Adélaïde' qu'il fut envoyé près de Verdun en mars 1916. Depuis le front, tandis que plusieurs musiciens de l'arrière tombaient dans les travers du nationalisme. Plus tard, en 1917, Ravel acheva six pièces pour piano regroupées sous le titre 'Le Tombeau de Couperin' qu’il dédia à des amis tombés au front. Durement touché par ces épreuves accumulées, le musicien resta insensible aux échos de l'armistice et traversa alors une période de silence et de doute que vinrent interrompre en 1919 deux commandes cruciales, l'une de Diaghilev (La Valse) - Ravel y défigura sciemment la valse viennoise en dépeignant un 'tourbillon fantastique et fatal', évocation musicale de l'anéantissement par la guerre de la civilisation européenne qu'incarnaient les valses de Johann Strauss -, l'autre de Rouché (L'Enfant et les Sortilèges). C'était l’orchestration des célèbres 'Tableaux d'une exposition' de Moussorgski, commande de Serge Koussevitzky achevée en 1922 à Lyons-la-Forêt chez son ami Roland-Manuel, qui assit définitivement la réputation internationale de Ravel en la matière. Les Tableaux orchestrés par Ravel font partie, avec le Boléro, des œuvres françaises les plus représentées à l’étranger. - Villa 'Le Fresne' à 'Lyons-la-Forêt' où Ravel acheva la composition du 'Tombeau de Couperin' en 1917 et l'orchestration des 'Tableaux d'une Exposition' de Moussorgsky en 1922, le compositeur honoré familier de Lyons et sa fôret

20th century Hungarian composers, ethnomusicologists, pedagogues Zoltán Kodály and Béla Bartók, music education: 20th century Hungarian composer, ethnomusicologist, pedagogue, linguist Zoltán Kodály - Hungarian composer, pianist, and ethnomusicologist Béla Bartók, considered one of the most important composers of the 20th century - Kodály's approach to music education developed in Hungary during the mid-twentieth century by Zoltán Kodály, which was then developed over a number of years by his associates including Bela Bartok, as in 2016, the method was inscribed as a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage

Museums in Europe: Museums in Europe - Museums in Europe by country - Museums in Europe by type

Since 2017 'House of European History' in Brussels: Since 2017 House of European History (Maison de l'Histoire européenne, Huis van de Europese geschiedenis), a museum in Belgium's Brussels focusing on the history of Europe, as the permanent exhibition begins with the myth of the goddess Europa, delving into Europe's ancient roots and the continent's heritage of shared traditions and achievements, before continuing through Europe's dramatic journey towards modernity in the 19th century and the rebuilding process following World War II, as the final section challenges visitors to critically assess European history, its potential and its future - Since 2011 Platform of European Memory and Conscience located in Prague and Brussels, an educational project of the EU bringing together government institutions and NGOs from EU countries active in research, documentation, awareness raising and education about the crimes of totalitarian regimes, as its membership includes 62 government agencies and NGOs from 20 EU member states, non-EU European countries, as well as from the USA, such as the Institute of National Remembrance, the Berlin-Hohenschönhausen Memorial, and the Stasi Records Agency

Ethnic and ethnographic museums by country including European countries: Ethnic and ethnographic museums by country including European countries

Ethnic groups by continent and ethnology: Ethnic groups by continent - Ethnology, the branch of anthropology that compares and analyzes the characteristics of different peoples and the relationships between them

Ethnic groups by continent: Ethnic groups in Africa - Ethnic groups in North America - Ethnic groups in the USA - Native Americans in the USA - Ethnic groups in Central America - Ethnic groups in South America - Ethnic groups in Asia - Ethnic groups in Europe - Ethnic groups in Oceania and Australia

History of Native Americans in North America and the USA: History of Native Americans in the USA

Iroquois 'People of the Longhouse' historical indigenous confederacy in northeast North America: The Iroquois 'People of the Longhouse', a historical indigenous confederacy in northeast North America, known during the colonial years to the French as the Iroquois League, later as the Iroquois Confederacy and to the English as the Five Nations, comprising the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, and Seneca, as after 1722 they accepted the Tuscarora people from the southeast into their confederacy, also Iroquoian-speaking, and consequently became known as the Six Nations, and as in 2010 more than 45,000 enrolled Six Nations people lived in Canada, and about 80,000 in the USA

Lewis H. Morgan's (1818-1881) theory of social evolution: Lewis H. Morgan's (1818-1881) theory of social evolution - 1877 'Ancient Society' investigation by the anthropologist Lewis H. Morgan, building on the data about kinship and social organization presented 1871 - 'Ancient Society' investigation, published 1877 (full text) - 1884/1892 'Die irokesische Gens' by Friedrich Engels (im Anschluß an Lewis H. Morgans Forschungen, in 'Der Ursprung der Familie, des Privateigentums und des Staats'

Rural history museums in Europe: Rural history museums in Europe

European Union and science and technology, European Research Area: European Union and science and technology - European Research Area - Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks

Since 1975 European Space Agency ESA: European Space Agency ESA, an intergovernmental organisation dedicated to the exploration of space since 1975, with 22 member states and headquartered in Paris, having worldwide staff of about 2,000 and an annual budget of about €5.25 billion in 2016

October 2016 ExoMars mission: 20 October 2016: Hopes are fading for Schiaparelli lander, part of the ExoMars 2016 mission jointly operated by ESA with the Russian regime's space agency Roscosmos, after mission control lost contact - 28 October 2016: ESA released images of its doomed Mars lander, showing a giant crater caused by impact, and scattered components

July 2018 water 'lake' revealed on Mars: 25 July 2018: Using Marsis, a radar instrument on board the European Space Agency's Mars Express orbiter, researchers have found evidence of an existing body of liquid water on Mars

August 2018 'Aeolus': Since 22 August 2018 Atmospheric Dynamics Mission 'Aeolus' Earth observation satellite - 23 August 2018: ESA launched a rocket from French Guyana to put a satellite into orbit as part of what company Arianespace called the world’s first space mission to map the Earth’s wind on a global scale, as Aeolus will boost climate research and weather forecasting, particularly in data blindspot of the tropics

Proposed fusion, power generation that would generate electricity by using heat from nuclear fusion reactions in fusion reactors (proposed) - Proposed fusion reactors - Nuclear fusion

Since October 2007 international nuclear fusion research and engineering project ITER: Since October 2007 ITER, an international nuclear fusion research and engineering megaproject, which will be the world's largest magnetic confinement plasma physics experiment, funded and run by 7 member entities including the EU, India, Japan, China, Russia, South Korea, USA, as the EU, as host party for the ITER complex, is contributing 45.46% of the cost and as 35 countries are participating in the project with an experimental tokamak nuclear fusion reactor built next to the Cadarache facility in Saint-Paul-lès-Durance in southern France

Since 20th century problems and criticism of ITER project: Since 20th century problems and criticism of ITER project

1988-2035 timeline after ITER project officially initiated: Since 1988 timeline and status of ITER project

28 July 2020 Iter project began its five-year assembly phase: 28 July 2020: Iter project, the world’s largest nuclear fusion project aiming to show clean fusion power can be generated at commercial scale, began its five-year assembly phase on Tuesday in southern France, with the first ultra-hot plasma expected to be generated in late 2025

Sport in Europe: Sport in Europe - Sport in Europe by country

Sport in Europe by sport and history: Sport in Europe by sport - History of sport in Europe - Women's sports in Europe - Men's sport in Europe - Youth sport in Europe

Sports festivals in Europe: Sports festivals in Europe

July-August 1947 1st World Festival of Youth and Students until 20 August 1947 in Prague: 1st World Festival of Youth and Students was held from 2 July to 20 August 1947 in Prague, capital city of the Czechoslovak Republic, after the WFYS had decided to celebrate its first festival there in remembrance of the events of October and November 1939, when thousands of young Czechs rose in demonstrations against the occupation of the country by Nazi Germany. This caused a wave of repression that included the closing of all the superior schools, the arrest of more than 1850 students, and the internment of 1200 in the Nazi concentration camps. The WFYS also paid tribute to the Czech cities of Lidice and Ležáky, which were eradicated as a response to the assassination of the German governor Reinhard Heydrich, nicknamed 'The Butcher of Prague'

July-August 1949 2nd World Festival of Youth and Students in Budapest: July-August 1949 2nd World Festival of Youth and Students until 3 August 1949 in Budapest, Hungary's capital city

July-August 1955 5th World Festival of Youth and Students was held until 15 August 1955 in Warsaw: July-August 1955 5th World Festival of Youth and Students was held until 15 August 1955 in Warsaw, capital city of Poland. The WFYS organized this festival during the rise of the peaceful coexistence concept introduced by Nikita Khrushchev among the socialist bloc. At the end of the 1950s, the colonialism was in its last years, and in the same year, the Bandung Conference was held. The conference strongly criticized the western powers for keeping their colonial possessions. The need for a struggle against the danger of nuclear annihilation and for the end of colonialism dominated the festival. More than 30,000 young people from 114 countries participated in this edition of the festival.

Since 1991 European Youth Olympic Festivals: European Youth Olympic Festival, a biennial multi-sport event for youth (14 to 18 years old) athletes from the 50 member countries of the association of European Olympic Committees. The festival has a summer edition, held for the first time in Brussels in 1991, and a winter edition, which began two years later in Aosta. It was known as the European Youth Olympic Days from 1991 to 1999. The Summer editions include the years 1991, 1993, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2013, 2015, 2017, 2019, 2022, 2023, and the winter editions the years 1993, 199,5 1997, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2013, 2015, 2017, 2019, 2022, and in July 2023 in Slovenia's city of Maribor

July 2022 European Youth Summer Olympic Festival in Banská Bystrica city in Slovakia: July 2022 European Youth Summer Olympic Festival was held in Banská Bystrica city in Slovakia with 48 participating nations, as Košice was originally the host city but withdrew in April 2019 due to financial concerns. Banská Bystrica was chosen as the new host city in May 2019. Originally scheduled to run from 24 July to 1 August 2021, on 7 May 2020 it was announced that the games will be moved to 2022 as a result of the ongoing covid-19 pandemic.

4 October 2022 Strasbourg decided not to screen the 2022 Qatar World Cup, joining other French cities: 4 October 2022: Strasbourg has also decided not to screen the 2022 Qatar World Cup. 'It is impossible for us not to listen to the numerous alerts from NGOs denouncing the abuse and exploitation of immigrant workers. Thousands of foreign workers have died on the building sites, it’s unbearable', the city’s ecologist mayor, Jeanne Barseghian, said in an interview, adding 'Strasbourg, the European capital and seat of the European court of human rights, cannot decently condone these abuses, cannot turn a blind eye when human rights are being flouted in this way'

Religions in Europe, with a major influence on countries' societies, culture, language, art, and law, as the largest religion in Europe has become 'Christianity', as three countries in Southeastern Europe have Muslim majorities, as ancient European religions included veneration for deities such as 'Zeus', as smaller religions include religions originating in the Asian part of Eurasia, Judaism, and some East Asian religions, which are found in their largest groups in Britain, France, and the former Soviet Union (now Russian federation), as little is known about the prehistoric religion of Neolithic Europe, as Bronze and Iron Age religions in Europe were predominantly polytheistic (Ancient Greek religion, Ancient Roman religion, Basque mythology, Finnish paganism, Celtic polytheism, Germanic paganism, etc.)

Fourth century change of the Roman empire and 'Christianization': The Roman Empire officially adopted Christianity in AD 380, as during the Early Middle Ages, most of Europe underwent 'Christianization', a development which included the use of force, military force and militarization, a process essentially complete with the Christianization of Scandinavia in the High Middle Ages - Religion in the EU

Since ancient times the story of the 'Tower of Babel', actual confusion of tongues, and exploration of historical contexts - Origin of language and human evolution - Language acquisition

Since 7th century BCE adoption of the 'Torah' in Israel and Judah: History of education (learning specific skills) in ancient Israel and Judah, as 'education' has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of culture from generation to generation, and as formal education in this sense can be traced in Ancient Israel and Judah to some time after the 7th century BCE with adoption of the Torah, which means 'teaching', 'instruction', 'scribe' or 'law' in Hebrew - Since 950–587 BCE history of ancient Israel and Judah during Iron Age II